Eco Hotel Business Plan

Eco Hotel Business Plan Business Plan ECO-REST Non-Profit Hotel Executive Summary The current hospitality and tourism market finds itself under threat, almost as a direct result of the heightened awareness of the impact that is being Imposed by the relatively new phenomenon that is know as climate change. The market: As an industry the hotel and hospitality sectors have an abundance of establishments, particularly in the Greater Miami areas. In essence it could therefore be argued that there is no need for yet another hotel. The answer to this viewpoint is that the proposed ECO-REST hotel project has two distinctive and unique features and benefits that provide it with a potentially new business model that, to a large extent, will enable the hotel to create its own niche marketplace. Further, the diversification into the non-profit arena, with the objective of feeding excess income out to support community based environmentally positive projects, does show that the non-profit hotel organisation can bring about change in an effective manner and one that involves every member of the local community. Customers: Research has shown that the business and leisure traveller are becoming more discerning; In particular this reveals itself in the concerns that are being expressed relating to business response to climate change. The overwhelming majority of consumers now believe that it is the duty of the hotel operator to encompass the improvement and changes needed to combat global warming and they are prepared to pay a premium to those establishment that can prove they have adopted eco-friendly systems and structures within their operational procedures and methods of trading. With 80% of travellers being of in favour of this position it is clear that there is a need for the hospitality organisations to adapt their objectives to a set of rules that takes into account the demands of the consumer and face the environmental issue. Alternatively, they face the risk of the loss of competitive advantage and market share, neither of which options would be received positively by shareholders who are the m ajor investors in the hotel sector. Hotel features: The features that are being included within the design and build of ECO-REST are intended to include all the latest technology and design that is being used and recommended as a template for reducing the impact that hotels have upon the environment. These include energy saving systems, methods by which the maximum benefit is gained from the use of daylight; solar and wind-power and the recycling of all basic discarded and waster material. The green features also extend beyond the needs of the building to address environmentally friendly systems in the garden and grounds belonging to the business. In fact the whole ethos of the business is to approach every aspect of the business operation of the basis of â€Å"how green can it be.† Research has shown that this approach not only provides a competitive advantage when seeking to increase market share but also has a positive affect upon the profitability of the business as well. Operating principles ECO-REST has a philosophy that is specifically designed based on giving back to the customer, which is the reason why it was decided that this project should be styled as a non profit making charitable organisation. This allows the business to have the extra flexibility to be able to donate to organisations of its choice that will be of positive use to the community and its environment. The Future There is little doubt that as the warning relating to climate change becomes more vocal people are going to become more strident in their demands for the traditional systems of commerce. It will not be acceptable in the future to react with cosmetic measures designed to appease. In the future consumers will want to proof of improvements. Hotels such as ECO-REST are examples of structures and establishments that contain that proof. Therefore there is little doubt that the opportunity exists to be able to take this business model and replicate it, not only in other areas of the US but also to the international community. Contents (Jump to) Executive Summary 1. Introduction 2 Target market opportunity 2.1 Tourism 2.2 Business Eco-travel 2.3 The hospitality and tourism market in Florida 3 Marketing 3.1 Tourist and corporate travel operators 3.2 Advertising and promotion 3.3 Strategic alliances 4 Competitors 4.1 Five forces analysis 5 Corporate strategy 5.1 Start up strategy 5.2 Operating principles 5.3 Operational programme 6 Management and governance structure 7 Financials 1. Introduction It is extremely rare to find a hotel establishment within the commercial market that operates on a non-profit making basis, with all excess revenue earned during the year being used for charitable purposes rather than to enhance shareholder/owner value. Similarly, few hotels have taken full advantage of all the green and eco-friendly and sustainable measures that are available to this sector of the hospitality industry. The ECO-REST hotel project is designed to fit within both of these criteria. ECO-REST Hotel, an establishment that will have 120 rooms and be based in Greater Miami, Florida, will make full use of all currently available environmentally friendly practices and partner with environmental organisations to donate all profits to help fund local green and sustainable projects. This report contains the proposed business plan for ECO-REST Hotel and will outline the research that has been conducted into the market, its competitors, the anticipated financial performance and req uirements for the project. 2. Target market opportunity Research has shown there is an increasing demand from tourists and business travellers for hotel establishments that took the incorporation of environmentally measures within their establishments seriously and were prepared to pay a premium for accommodation that fulfilled these requirements. 2.1. Tourism Although there are various forms of tourism[1] in the context of the ECO-REST project the concentration will be focused upon Ecotourism and sustainable tourism. In these two areas there are significant indicators that these forms are the future growth sectors of the industry, as can be evidenced from the following: From the beginning of the last decade it has been estimated that ecotourism has been growing at an annual rate of between 20% and 34%[2] Eco and sustainable tourism numbers in 2004 was outpacing the overall tourism industry growth by three times[3] Produces economic benefit for the local community, in terms of increased employment 62% of Americans consider it important to learn about other cultures when they travel[4] 80% of Americans consider hotels should take steps to protect the environment[5] and an increasing number base their accommodation selection upon these factors In addition to the above most research has indicated that these forms of tourism have economic benefits for the hotels and destinations. 2.2.  Business Eco-travel The corporate market is also becoming increasingly involved with environmental and sustainable issues[6]. This has occurred both because of the increasing national and international legislation that is being introduced to tackle the effects of climate change and is being influenced by the changing demands of their consumers. An integral part of annual reporting for the majority of corporations today is the inclusion of a corporate and social responsibility report (CSR). Within this document is included an overview of the business response and performance upon issues such as steps to make the corporation processes and operations more environmentally friendly and its contribution towards sustainability within the local community. Reducing the corporate carbon footprint is as essential element of these CSR performances and therefore the importance of the environmental impact of business travel, which hotel and hospitality accommodation is an element of, is becoming increasingly importan t for the business brand. The US travel industry is one of the economy’s largest sectors and produces revenues in excess of $100 billion per annum, of which 70% is spent on domestic travel. Of this domestic travel element approximately 45% is related to business travel and accommodation requirements. Based upon the fact that 80% of the US population believes that hotels should take a protective approach to the environment, it therefore is apparent that there is a considerable potential for revenue growth to be generated by offering corporate hospitality, with the product being enhanced to include the environmental and sustainable factor that are becoming increasingly important. 2.3.  The hospitality and tourism market in Florida As can be seen from the following graph (figure 1), the visitor numbers to Florida as a state has experienced a year on year growth of domestic, overseas, and Canadian visitor numbers since the turn of the century[7]. These numbers include both the business and tourism sectors. As can be seen from this graph, although the numbers of overseas an Canadian visitors have remained relatively flat for the period, the significant rise in domestic tourists has increased by nearly thirty percent as more US citizens are taking domestic vacations. In addition, the same research indicates that, of this number, approximately 44.3% uses hotels and other paid accommodation, which in 2007 equates to around 37.4 million guests to be accommodated. In terms of the hotel market specifically related to Miami, a recent report indicated that occupancy rates for the Greater Miami area for the first four months of 2008 were up to 80.5% with room rates averaging $196.61[8]. However, this position is expected to have slowed during the final part of the year and is likely to remain static for 2009 due to the global economic downturn. Nevertheless, as will be shown later within this report, these rates are considerably higher than the business plan for this project envisages. 3. Marketing ECO-REST hotel has set its target occupancy rate for the business at 70% with an average room rate, taking into account discounts and special offers, of $170. To achieve the targets set, a strategic marketing programme has been designed, which will concentrate upon the following three areas. 3.1.  Tourist and corporate travel operators Although a number of eco-tourists and business travellers tend to book and compile the component parts of their visits to Florida and Miami via the Internet, a large number still rely upon the services of external agencies. These include travel agents and tour operators. It is the intention of the business to create relationships with these organisations, particularly those that have an interest in eco and sustainable tourism and hospitality. To cement these relationships, the hotel will offer discounts at certain times and also provide evaluation and inspection visits, particularly at times of low occupancy, to enable representatives from these organisations to have a better understanding of the facilities offered by the hotel and its aims and objectives. 3.2.  Advertising and promotion It is important part of the strategic marketing programme for the business to promote the unique selling points (USP’s) of its business. Therefore, the focus of promotional material will be the environmentally friendly aspects of the business accommodation and the charitable support it provides to local and regional organisations directly involved with projects that address these issues. Furthermore, it will be necessary to ensure that the promotional message is directed to the most appropriate market segment. To achieve this objective the business intends to take a threefold approach. Promotion to destination organisations, such as cultural and nature attractions, including seeking to have the hotel advertised on their advertising literature Linking with members of such organisations through newsletters or other advertising based upon their membership lists Appropriate advertising targeted at the publications and media events relating to the issues that are relevant to the hotel’s aims and objectives In addition to these methods, it is intended to design an attractive website that displays and promotes all the important aspect of the hotel and its facilities. This will include visual and video images of the hotel and audio as well as written data and an interactive booking facility. The online promotion programme will also include a significant element of networking. This will be achieved by the creating of a corporate blog, interactive links with relevant organisations and charities and involvement with appropriate social networking sites, such as â€Å"You-tube†. 3.3.  Strategic alliances The third aspect of the marketing strategy for the business is to create strategic alliances with organisations and corporations that provide a fit for ECO-REST hotel’s USPs. Included amongst this selection will be the state tourist and environment offices, local NGO’s such as Friends of the Everglades and historical and cultural destination operators. To access the corporate market alliances will be formed local and regional trade and commerce associations supported by personal invitations to local corporations to visit the hotel and experience its facilities with the objective of securing occupancy from the out of areas suppliers and sales personnel that visit these businesses. It is anticipated that a targeted and disciplined marketing and promotional programme that incorporates the above described elements will enable the business to achieve its occupancy target within the first year of operations. 4. Competitors There are a considerable number of hotels and similar establishment in Florida and in the Greater Miami district. A reasonable segment of these hotels, due to their small sizes and limited facilities, would not present a competitive threat the ECO-REST’s project. Furthermore, in terms of specific comparisons, whilst most of the hotels have made certain attempts at becoming eco-friendly, many still have areas in this regard that require improvement. Evidence of this can be found at a website called Best Green Hotels, which reviews hotels and accommodation by a set of environmental indicators[9]. An example of this criterion can be found in appendix 2. The scoring system, based upon a â€Å"green† tree badge system, works in the following manner. 1 tree=1-4 ticks on the list 2 trees=5-9 ticks 3 trees=10-15 ticks 4 green trees=16-22 ticks 5 trees=27-29 trees 6 trees= 27-28 ticks 7 trees=29 ticks (maximum) A review of the 224 hotels listed for Florida and the six specific to a Miami search shows that none of these establishments have so far achieved a position of more than four stars. The aim for ECO-REST hotel is to create an environment that will enable the establishment to fulfil all of the stated criteria, thus achieving the highest award level offered by this listing. The intention therefore is to use this criterion as a guide to ensure that the environmental objectives of the business are achieved. 4.1.  Five forces analysis Addressing the hotel market in the Greater Miami area by using the five forces strategy developed by Michael Porter[10] it is anticipated that, whilst there are some concerns, the objective discussed earlier should place ECO-REST in a strong position to be able to gain a competitive advantage. Figure 2 Porters five forces Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porter_5_forces_analysis Rivalry Due to its location and brand awareness in the tourism and hospitality industry, the supply of hotel rooms in the Miami area is reasonably high, with a number of establishments that the tourist and business traveller. With the ECO-REST project involving the razing and rebuilding of an existing establishment it is unlikely that there will be any appreciable increase in the supply of room nights available in the area. Similarly, as the business average rate determinate is in line with current market rates it is considered unlikely that rivalry based upon price will be an immediate issue. It is further anticipated that the strategy being adopted by the ECO-REST hotel has a sufficient level of product differentiation to reduce the influence that rivalry might have upon its establishment[11]. In addition, research undertaken to date, mainly web based, has revealed few hospitality establishments operating on a non-profit basis apart from those directly aimed at the social service market, for example, those dealing with issues such as homelessness and persons experiencing social deprivation for a number of reasons. Supplier power Because the business is seeking to work through a number of strategic alliances within the travel industry and providing incentives from which these stakeholders will benefit, the level of supplier power will be reduced. An additional benefit in this respect will be accomplished by the fact that excess revenues from the ECO-REST project will be fed back to local environment and cultural project, thus leading to a level of competitive advantage that would not be achievable by the commercial hotel sector. With the requirement of creating â€Å"added value† for their shareholders, together with the cost of dividends, taxes and management benefit packages; these corporations will not be able to compete with the donation levels available to ECO-REST. Furthermore, the prospect of such funding will enhance the value of the relationship that ECO-REST will enjoy with local suppliers. Buyer power Buyer power is perhaps the most volatile element of the five forces framework to assess for two reasons. Firstly because the product has to match with the buyer’s or consumers purchasing determinates and demands and secondly because the experience has to match with their expectation in terms of satisfaction. However, based upon the researched that has been outlined in sections 2.1 and 2.2 of this proposal it is considered that the product offered by ECO-REST hotels addresses the first of these issues in that the hotel environment matches the increased demands for an environmentally friendly product. In terms of the second aspect, it is considered that, with the degree of quality attached to the hotel establishment and the anticipated service quality, the physical experience should exceed the consumers’ expectations. Substitute products Existing hotel establishments will find it impossible to match the product that is being offered by ECO-REST hotels without a severe disruption to their current trading levels. The benefit for ECO-REST is that this project is commencing with a â€Å"clean sheet† approach. This approach allows for the incorporation of eco-friendly systems at the design and construction stage of the project (see more detail in section 5). These will be applied to the building itself, its utilities and the external landscape. The cost of conversion or redevelopment of an existing hotel, particularly if undertaken by a commercially orientated organisation, would prove prohibitive to existing operators. Additionally, in the event that such organisations should decide to follow the lead set by ECO-REST hotel, the timescale for redevelopment provides this project with the benefit of being able to consolidate its market share and â€Å"first-mover† position in this niche sector of the hospitality market. Barriers to entry Barriers to entry into the niche market that is being anticipated within this project are considered to exist in the following areas: Non-profit structure The fact that the ECO-REST hotel is designed to be a non-profit organisation will reduce the numbers of new entrants by eliminating the commercial investor from this sector of the hospitality market as, if this model is followed; there is no commercial return on the investment made. Cost and timescale for development To commence a development of the nature of ECO-REST hotels does require the outlay of a considerable cost. Moreover, the timescale to completion is anticipated to be in the region of nine months. These factors will have a deterrent effect upon new entrants in two ways, particularly if this entrant is a commercially minded organisation. Firstly, the return on the investment in the short term will influence the level of costs attributable to the project. Secondly, the time taken for completion will provide first movers and preceding entrants, such as ECO-REST with the ability to establish the Brand and gain competitive advantage Strategic alliances The development of strong strategic alliances with the organisations as outlined in section 3.3 of this report, together with a programme that ensures continuing process of bi-directional and interactive communication between the ECO-REST business and these stakeholders will serve to reduce the potential of such organisations being tempted to change their allegiance to new entrants. Research has shown that, providing the right quality of service and commitment to stakeholders is maintained their inclination to change to a new promotional or revenue source will be reduced. Economic benefits As will be evidenced in the financial details contained within section 7, the reduction and elimination of the commercial elements from an operation that is conducted within the non-profit sector does present certain advantages to the beneficiaries of the product. In particular, in the case of this specific project those beneficiaries exist within two main areas. In the first instance of the profits (or excess revenues) from the ECO-REST project are being returned to the local economy. Secondly, and of equal importance, the project is designed to attract a more affluent and discerning visitor to the locale, which will increase revenues enjoyed by other commercial organisations situated in the Greater Miami district. Community benefits Finally, the project is designed to bring benefits to the local community. By increasing tax revenues to the district it enables the local authority to undertake more improvements to the community infrastructure and the environment in which its citizens dwell. Similarly, by increasing the funding available to local tourist natural and cultural destinations the project will improve the community’s enjoyment of their leisure facilities. 5. Corporate strategy Within this section of the business proposal the strategy and operational principles and procedures for the ECO-REST hotel project are presented and discussed in further depth. 5.1.  Start up strategy ECO-REST hotel is currently working closely with the WTO[12], a local architect and a US construction corporation renowned for their involvement with the construction of environmentally friendly buildings. With the increased levels of concerns relating to environmental issues and the desire to sustain local destinations and environments, it is anticipated that the planning application and approval stage of this development should be completed within two months of that application being lodged with the local authorities. Currently two sites are being evaluated and discussed concerning their suitability for the project. The basis for continuation of the project has been agreed to concentrate around the following format. The construction company, taking advantage of the favourable grants and loans available for the construction of environmentally friendly structures, have agreed to fund the cost of the building works. In return for this advantage, the property, when completed, will be leased back to ECO-REST for a period of forty years at a rate that is commensurate with current market values. Consideration is being given to extending this business model and concept throughout other US states in the future, thus increasing the funds available to local natural and cultural destinations and enhancing the lifestyle and economic wealth that attracts to the local community. This project will also serve the purpose of heightening the awareness of the population to the environmental issues and dangers currently being faced by the global community, whilst at the same time demonstrating that the solution to these issues does not always require the motivation of the profit or shareholder â€Å"added value† drivers. Furthermore, it will also show that, providing the desired relationships can be developed between social and environmental needs and the commercial ethos in a manner that merges the motivational needs and requirements of all of the stakeholders, each and every one of these stakeholders will benefit from the concerted effort required to complete and fulfil these pro jects. 5.2.  Operating principles The operating principles, or mission statement, that has been proven to be the driving force behind the ethos upon which this project has been developed is: â€Å"It is possible, by the building of a new and unique relationship between the varied objectives of numerous stakeholders, to create a vision for the future that satisfies the needs and aspirations of all of these parties.† Furthermore, following the success of this project it will also show that, providing corporations within the tourism and hospitality sector fulfil the promises that are made to other stakeholders within the supply chain, . Environment To ensure that the ECO-REST project addresses the environmental issues being faced by the global community in the twenty-first century, and to set an example for the future, the following are some of the environmental systems of improvements will be used in the construction and design of the new building. These methods are also intended to enhance the comfort of the experience for the guests who stay at the hotel. Building The basic structure will be circular in shape and all of the rooms will be build around a central core which will house on the ground floor the extra facilities such as the conferencing rooms, dining and lounge areas. A special glass central roofing section will be installed, enabled to warm the building in the winter and cool it during the summer. As many common areas as possible will be walled in glass (similar to the design on the book cover left). The advantage of this design and roofing is that it will increase the amount of daylight that penetrates the building, thus reducing energy usage. Much of the structural work will make use of recyclable materials. It has also been noticed that in standard hotels one of the major sources of energy waste evolves from the fact that the bedrooms and accommodation areas are often quite dark, even during the course of the day. To reduce the use of lighting in these areas the bedroom windows will stretch the width of the room. Moreover, the main doors will be panelled with non-see-through toughened glass to improve daylight access to the rooms from the centre of the hotel. Energy systems Modern environmentally friendly energy systems will be incorporated into the building. This will include the use of Geo-thermal underground heating, solar panelling for water heating and other power supply purposes. In addition, miniature wind turbines will be strategically placed around the building structure to support the efforts to make the hotel free from reliance upon fossil fuels. Water In terms of the water supply a grey water system will be installed to ensure that waste water is cleaned and recycled for use in such areas as the toilet system and for garden irrigation purposes. Additionally, modern water saving techniques will be used in the bathroom facilities and the central hotel laundry. Finally, water storage systems will be installed to ensure maximum usage of natural rainwater. Waste As much human waste as is possible will also be treated and recycled in the outdoor garden areas. Guests will also be encouraged to help in the recycling process through the provision of special bins in their rooms so that they can separate the waste paper etc that is left from their stay. Garden and landscaping It is intended to also extend the environmentally friendly and sustainable systems into the garden area with the designing and implementing of xeric gardens and, furthermore, one new tree will be planted in the grounds for each of the bedrooms and suites that the hotel offers in

Safety in China

In every activity we undertake, safety should prevail. Safety is very important for well living in terms of health and finances. This is because any individual who seeks safety by protecting him or herself lives free from harms, diseases and infections, thus spending little if any on treatments. This enhances saving of finances which could otherwise be spent on medication, and these funds can be used later to make other developments, or purchase other necessary goods and services. This shows the role of safety in life. Harms and damages may be caused by fire, traffic, occupational activities, as well as disasters whether natural or man made. In all these cases, we need to know the possible impact of the safety against these harms and based of individuals animals, businesses, premises as well as the entire society. China is geographically located on the Eastern side of Asia between Vietnam and North Korea. The country has diverse climate, characterized by subarctic in north and tropical in south. The country is exposed to various natural hazards such as floods which damage many things, earthquakes, tsunami, typhoons and drought among others. The country is rich in terms of natural resources as it produces hydropower potential, petroleum, natural gas and aluminum among many others. China is the forth largest country in the world, and part of the country hosts the tallest mountains peak in the world. According to the 2007 estimation, the country has a population of 1,321,851,888, a population growth of 0. 6%, with birth rare of 13. 5 births per a thousand populations, and a death rate of seven deaths per a thousand populations. The infant mortality rate is twenty two per a thousand live births and life expectancy of seventy three years at birth. China has 9. 326,410 sq Km of land and 270,550 sq of water with the coastline covering about 14,500 KM. Geographically China lies on 3500 N and 105 00 E. The Chinese have an intermediate degree of risk to major infectious diseases such as food and waterborne disease, vector borne diseases, water and animal diseases and very rarely avian influenza. (CIA 2008). An average of 91% of Chinese total population is literate, with the individuals aged fifteen and above able to read and write. Every Chinese individual is entitled to getting mandatory education. The country has 961,000 schools with 1,080 colleges and universities. Majority of these colleges and universities have online websites. Generally the China education system covers the preschool to college and universities levels, (Premier 2007). The China has a market oriented economy with many private sectors developing which has played a major role in the global economy. The GDP as per the 2007 estimate is 87. 043 trillion, 885,300 of PPP. The labor force is 803. 3 million as per the 2007 estimate. The unemployment rate is about 4% with 8% of the Chinese population living below poverty line. The household income rate ranges from 1. 6% to 35% (Harper 2005). According to the 2007 estimation of China budget, the expenditures out weighs the revenues, and has a 19% of GDP as public debt. The communication in China is composed of telephones which use main line and mobile cellular. The mobile cellular move used, compared to main line, according to 2006 estimate. There is also television and radio broadcast stations (Peterson 2002). Various modes of transport are used in China. Among these include airports, where there are those with paved runways and unpaved runways, the heliports, pipelines for gases and refined products, railways, waterways and roadways which are the commonly used transports among all Fire can be caused by various factors. Many lives and goods are lost as a result of fire disaster. It is very important to create safety against fire to minimize the risks related to fire. In China most of fire fighting agencies are the country’s army part and citizens undergoes the training which is divided into subcategories. These subcategories include drills, construction concerns, and simulations. The trainees can be trained by a 26-minute training DVD which are made in away to help the fire fighters to effectively and compassionately work with disabled individuals. The fire fighters Agencies in China include the public Agency. For any citizen to become fire fighter, there are several characters he or she need to have. This is barely because the job involves helping people who are in great need of the help, while risking your own health and life. Fire fighters have a unique character. When all other people are moving away from fire incident, the fire fighters tend to move closer to the fire, to put it off. This means that for any citizen to become an effective fire fighter, he or she need to be courageous and ready to save other people lives and ready to risk his or her life. The fire fighter are not only involved with putting out fires and saving other peoples lives, but they also constantly care about the people’s health making the society a better place to live. This brings the need for any citizen who intends to become a firer fighter to be devoted and not selfish. Citizen willing to become a fire fighter is expected to take psychological and physical examination, and to undergo a background and criminal check. The individual are expected to be self motivated without attitude. The citizen is expected to have empathy on others and have the ability to support people in all situations. A citizen with these abilities and who passes the exams are considered to be able to fight fire. In China, the fire fighters get their training involving in various activities and handling various equipments. They engage in responding to emergency calls, duties that require keeping watch, driving fire trucks and operating the fire trucks. The fire fighter learns manual and mechanical operation of the fire truck ladders. These practices needs to be handled in various locations, including inside buildings where they are expected to learn the amount of ventilation in building and how to increase without deteriorating the scene. They learn skills on how to enter into buildings on fire using the safest entrance. This shows that the training is not restricted to a specific area or location of training, but rather in various places depending on the skills being learnt to enhance proper practice. Safety against fire can be gained by using building code and fire codes. Although all building materials can be damaged by fire though at different heat degrees, the spread of the fire can be minimized by using building codes. (Thygerson 2008). Use of building codes enhances good public health, general welfare and safety. The building codes are used by engineers, architect and other manufacturers of products used in building, as well as insurance manager and tenants. Due to the distinct climatic zones in China, building codes are used. These codes are developed by code compilation committees which have high industrial involvement, and they are reviewed by the public, approved then the ministry of construction adopts them. These China building energy codes saves 35-50% energy in a 10% less cost increased as compared to other buildings. DEO II and other simulation software at LBNL, enhances software transfer and codes drafting where implementation activities are reviewed. Various zones have been covered in China, and the heating zone of North was covered by the code first, the residential code followed in cold winter and hot summer regions. The cooling of the warm winter and hot summer consumed a lot of energy, without heating. The commercial and government building are yet to get public building codes as they are in the process of being developed. (IEA 2006). The building codes in China played roles in heating the houses in colds winters and cooling the houses in warm and hot summers. Initially the fire codes were not translated into Chinese, until 2004 after the signing of agreement between National Technical committee for fire protection, Fire department commute, the China public security ministry and the National fire protection Association. They agreed to translate the 26 NFPA code. The translation was to be followed with training where individual would get the knowledge on how to apply the codes. This was aimed at enhancing life safety for the Chinese, and visitors who were to join the country for Olympics. Among these codes is the NFPA 1 uniform fire code, which was edited in 2003, NFPA 13E, NFPA 72, National alarm code which was edited in 2002, NFPA 101, life safety code which was edited in 2000, NFPA 230, standard for the fire protection of storage which was edited in 2003, NFPA 921, guide for fire and explosion investigation which was edited in 2004 among others in China, a GB316-87, is the current national standard Building design code which was edited in 2001 with the aim to control building fires. Kelly 2000). The National technical committee and China public security ministry are responsible for fire prevention in China. The PRC has come up with law which enhances fire prevention by ensuring that all residential buildings have a clear emergency exit. Generally the Chinese people feel the need for safety. This is evidenced after the several fire disasters which have oc curred in the country. Despite the need for this safety, many builders and new-home buyers tend to assume the need. This is because, by use of these fire stops and better fire resistance rating materials the costs of construction and subsequent cost of buying the built house increases. In 1999, a severe fire disaster occurred in a village of Eastern province of Saudi Arabia. A high number of people were involved, and the following year, others died, while others remained hospitalized. Around fourteen patients were referred to UK and USA for further medication. Rapid motorization has caused severe challenge to driving safety in China. Research has showed that most of the Chinese drivers usually have unsafe driving behaviors, recommending improved training methods and enforcement of good driving behaviors by the police. The Chinese drivers consider use of driving skills and capabilities rather than practical safe driving guidelines. The Chinese drivers rarely use running light in snowy weather, few of the drivers don’t use safety belts and very few of them use turn signals as well as headlights. The automobiles in China were developed in 1986, and the output rapidly. These automobiles are high-class consumer durable containing low household ownership in China. In 2005, China started producing sedans. The death rate of Chinese in relation to motor vehicle is high, but not as the rate in United States. Chinese have more of the injury death associated with drowning, suicide, unlike the United States whose motor vehicle clashes rate is more compared to suicide and drowning. In China its easy to get driving license especially for individuals from other states, an individual is required to present a passport copy, a copy of driving license from their state, four red-color photos and 1,880 Hong Kong dollars. The applicant then sits for traffic rule examination and road tests follows, the applicant drives the vehicle for very few minutes as a practical examination, and after two weeks, driver’s license is ready. This means to get drivers license in China is easy because one can even refers the answer to the questions from the book. According to the Chinese culture, alcohol drinking is an important cultural aspect, believed to enhance, colleagues and leaders relationship, and to promote happy life when in festivals with friends, relatives and family members. In China, there is no minimum alcohol taking age, Alcohol-related injuries account for a third of total injuries in China, and the Chinese government made a traffic safety law in 2004. In China, there has been set penalty for drivers who drink while driving, and a different one for drivers who are found drunk when driving. For the drinking drivers, the driving license can be suspended for an average of two month, and a fine of an average of 50 US dollars. For the drunk drivers suspension of driving license takes an average of five month and the driver can end up into custody, and/or about 230 US dollars fine. WHO considers the Chinese most collisions to have resulted from violation of traffic rules, arguing that the poor road conditions, lack of necessary measures and ineffective prevention measures also contribute to the deaths, where farmers and businessmen are the major victims. According to Chinese automobile fatalities are preventable, but this contradicts with the cultural practices because what can be used to prevent the fatalities, the Chinese culture has great value for them. A good example for this is drinking. There has been no major motor vehicle accident in China, but minor cases have been reported throughout China, causing few severe and minor injuries to the victims. The International Labor Organization, State Administration of Work Safety as well as China International Forum of work safety are some of the organizations in China, which have been working to promote safety of workers at their work places. One of the most dangerous work places in China is the coalmines. Education and training of safety inspectors are the major keys which can underpin safety culture. The coal mining industry training in China is offered in four institutional types. The level A and level B institutions are involved with training the mine managers and safety controllers, level C institutions trains special occupational workers with special skills unlike those given to manager and controllers. The level D institution trains mine workers at the mining sites. (OS and HC 2001). The occupational safety inspectors require the training on how to maintain safety while working, and the need for the safety. An underground gas- triggered earthquake in Northeast China killed at least two hundred and two people. The president leaders and local officials made efforts to rescue the victims and put strict measures that would prevent similar and other disasters at mining site, and compensated the victims’ families. The Chinese work hard and with diligence. They believe that hard work has a lot for them in terms of benefits, incomes and generally good living standards. All Chinese keep this as their drive force, whereby all individuals work hard to earn living. Migrant workers put extra efforts when working in China, and the wages they get in return are very low. Not all Chinese are hard work, but since no country has a universal cultural trait, the general description of Chinese is that they are hard working. They are status-obsessed, greedy and envious of their social betterment. These traits are the driving force of Chinese to hard working. The riches of the Chinese are not achieved from the parents’ financial background, but rather from the efforts of their hard work. Various trade unions have been formed in China. These unions are aimed at protecting the legitimate rights and interests or workers. Among these unions is the All China Federation of Trade Unions which collectively bargains for the workers in the management. The union represents the workers interest in wage negotiations, while enhancing job security. Occupational illnesses and injuries cost China a lot. Most of these illnesses are caused by inhaling of dusts at mining sites and include, chronic lung diseases, pneumoconiosis. According to legal daily, the GAWS, said that about seven hundred million of Chinese suffer occupational illnesses, and there is a high possibility of the number to increase. (Chow 2003). There are other illnesses and injuries related to the Chinese occupation, but the ones that result from mining are the majority and have severe effects to individual and businesses. Although some businesses gives sick leaves, not all of them give a considerable duration of the leave for fire fighters in China, some fire houses gives a day to two medical leave for fighters but its given to workers with severe injuries. Minor injuries like sprains, injuries and cuts are not considered. The city argued that workers who seek on-duty injury leaves should be penalized because the union fosters the decision to seek the sick leaves. The ILO urges China to create more and better jobs to meet the economy surges, of filling jobs. This is because China’s economy is booming but the labor is scarce. The ILO reported that there is a decrease in creation of jobs in China, compared to the GDP growth. There has been a high ratio of unemployed Chinese in relation to the entire Chinese population. ILO reported that the shedding of jobs at poorly performing states owned business has caused loss of many jobs, and the shifting from long-term structural shift to employment-intensive growth as the country modernizes have resulted to mediocre rate in creation of job. ILO urges China to participate in education and training system to avail skilled technicians and workers. The trained personnel and thought to ensure long term transition plans are effective which would produce greater valued goods and services. In China occupational accidents are so frequent especially at mine sites and despite it all, Chinese continue to work at the mines. Despite the deaths which result from these accidents, the Chinese continue to work to earn for their living. The International Strategy for disaster reduction and UN/ISDR have been participating in preventing and minimizing risks associated with natural and manmade disasters in China. In July 1931, a severe flood occurred in China, which led to 3,700,000 deaths. The disaster was as a result of flooding of yellow river in China. In 1920, Gansu earthquake occurred in China killing 200,000 people. (Brown 2002). The WHO report, indicates that China is one of the major tobacco consuming countries, with subsequent death, and to limit this, the WHO report emphasized on preventing the tobacco consumption by giving anti-smoking messages to the public. In another WHO report, China was among the countries which were found to be operating in a level accepted by WHO in terms of compliance with its principles of good manufacturing practices. The tobacco consumption in China, as well as other lung infections related to mining dust is some of the specific threats faced by the Chinese. . According to WHO report, Chinese population is under the risk of chronic diseases, children malnutrition, under nutrition and overweight, anemia resulting from under nutrition and poor sanitation. These risks if not sorted out can have great negative impact to the entire Chinese population. Other diseases which increase the Chinese mortality rate include HIV /AIDS, malaria infection, and tuberculosis among others. Deaths, injuries and damage of premises are some of the major threats faced by the Chinese as a result of various disasters. These disasters affect individuals, organizations as well as the entire population in the Chinese society, whether directly or indirectly The WHO recommends support from governmental, and non governmental organization to enhance health workforce and financial support, which are thought to ensure effective treatment of infected and affected people in China. China is one of the countries mostly affected by disasters due to its geographical and physical feature. The disasters are also enhanced by involvement of people in various activities thus the manmade disasters. These disasters greatly affect the social and economic development of the Chinese. Various disasters have been reported to have occurred in China, including floods, earthquakes, firers, drought, seismic and ecological disasters among others. (Thygerson 1977). However, no history report has indicated volcano eruption or possibility of eruption. Threats posed by disasters are related to property, life and individuals’ safety as well as the country’s safety in terms of economy and society. These China’s social stability and national security are inhibited by the disasters and due to fear of investors, China economic development comes to halt, which promotes poverty in the country. The disasters made by man in China include the virus, biological warfare, chemical warfare and the development of nuclear weapons by man. (Abramowitz 2002). Both natural and man made disasters have similar threat to the Chinese population. A lot of injuries and deaths’ have resulted in China from disasters whether, natural or manmade. In China, flooding is a major killer of lives in China. Below is a table showing the top ten natural disasters in China, including the resulting death and injury toll. The Chinese blame Japanese, claiming that they cause most of the experienced disasters. They relate manmade disasters to the Japanese action. They regard civil war as a process in which a nation moves despite the war effects. Despite the many likes lost as a result of these disasters the Chinese population takes heart and continues with their work activities. This is common in mining sites, because the disasters are frequently reported but Chinese continue working at the mine site to earn for their living. (Heming and Philpee 2001).

Smart materials

The primary characteristic of a â€Å"smart material† is that it has the ability to respond to external stimuli in a technically useful and technically controlled way. The words â€Å"technically useful† and â€Å"technically controlled† are emphasized since all materials respond to external stimuli of some sort or other (as a simple example, all materials respond to temperature by changing their volume), however, to be considered a â€Å"smart material† the response must be one that is useful in an engineering application.Thus, any discussion of smart materials must include a consideration of the application of these materials. Animals and plants could be considered as consisting of a large number of smart materials, however, the scope of this article will be restricted to inorganic and organic materials that are used in a more traditional engineering sense. ) The term smart material often also has a historical context, only being applied to relatively ne w materials. For example, consider the simple bimetallic strip.Bimetallic strips have been around for centuries and consist of two metals Joined so that the difference in the coefficient of thermal expansion causes the strip to bend in response to a change in temperature. This can be used, eg, to open or close a echanical valve or electrical circuit. The stimuli may either be provided by the natural environment or engineered into a structure that the material is part of. However, bimetallic strips are often not thought of as smart materials because they have been around and used for a long time.Smart materials are also often characterized by the fact that they transform energy from one mode to another, eg, from electrical energy to mechanical energy. Smart materials are also often incorporated in so-called Smart Structures, which are structures that, as well as being the structural support of a building or vehicle, also have a further function. For example, a load-bearing structure that also measures the load that it is carrying is an example of a smart structure. 2.Classification Schemes How a material is considered or classified depends to some extent on the scientific or technical discipline that is considering the material. For example, a material scientist is interested in the internal structure and how this may change under the influence of an external stimulus, whereas an application engineer may be more concerned with the function of the material and what it can be used for. 2. 1 . Classification According to Function. Smart materials can be classified according to the intended primary function, eg, as a sensor, actuator, or energy generator.Piezoelectric material is an example of a class of smart materials that can be used in all three of these functions. When subjected to stress these materials generate an electrical voltage that can be used as a response signal and also to generate power. Alternatively, when subjected to a voltage these materials ge nerate a mechanical stress. The interchangeable nature of stimulus and response is a common, but not universal, characteristic ot 1 Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. Copyright John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. vol. O smart materials. Materials that exhibit this interchangeable nature are often good candidates for smart structures with minimal external support requirements: one smart material both sensing and generating power and also capable of providing a mechanical or other response. Active Sensing Materials. The primary action of these materials is to transform one form of energy to another form of energy for, in most cases, a further device or material used to then generate a response. Active sensing materials may often be used to generate energy.For example, the voltage developed by electric polarization of a material can be used to accumulate charge, and the solar cell both detects the presence of incident light and generates a significant voltage and current. Passive Sensing Materials. These materials have a passive response to external stimuli, ie, do not transform an energy source to another energy. Thus these devices need an external source of power to operate. They are not really â€Å"smart†, but are included here for completeness since they do appear as sensors in larger smart systems.An example of a passive response is a change in electrical conductivity due o, eg, a change in pH of a solution. Actuating Materials. The primary function is to transform one form of energy to another form as a response to some external stimuli and to perform an action. 2. 2. Classification According to Smartness. Another possible classification is according to the degree of independence of operation that the smart material needs to operate in a smart structure. In this case, materials that require the least external support (eg, external power or processing capability) being considered smarter.A common example of a totally independen t smart material is that used in photochromic sunglasses. In this case, the energy required to drive the response, darkening of the sunglasses is provided directly by the stimulus, the incident light. 2. 3. Classification According to Material Properties. A further way to look at smart materials is to consider the primary physical-chemical property of the material that is used in smart applications. This is particularly useful in studying and understanding the operation of smart materials.Crystal Structure Modification. A number of classes of smart materials have crystal structural properties that can be used directly for smart actuating or sensing applications. These include materials that undergo a crystallographic phase change (eg, shape memory alloys), materials that have an electrical polarization natural to the crystal structure that responds to external stress (eg, piezoelectric materials) and materials that undergo realignment ot internal domains, such as electro- and magnet ostrictive materials.Energy Absorption-Emission. This includes materials that absorb incident energy by an internal excitation process (eg, promotion of electrons, on absorption of a photon, to a higher energy band). These often have a de-excitation process that involves the emission of energy. Examples include semiconductor devices as light sensors and energy harvesting devices. Macroscopic Ordering. Includes (generally) mixtures of materials where the large scale ordering of the particles in the mixture induces a change in properties of the mixture.Examples include electro- and magnetorheological fluids, 3 where an applied field induces particles in the fluid to align resulting in a change in viscosity. The Liquid Crystal Display can also be considered in this category. Chemical Interaction. Includes materials with sensitized surfaces that interact with target chemical or biological species. Examples include conducting polymers with functional groups that bind to chemical species and change the resistance of the polymer, and antigen coatings on microbalance mass detectors. Indicator chemicals that change color with, eg, pH, are another form of chemical sensor. . Smart Materials Overview Table 1 is a summary ofa number of materials that can be used in smart applications, ‘e, classified as to function. The following sections consider a number of these materials in more detail. Some sections deal with a particular type of smart material, whereas others deal with a class of material types. Inevitably, there are verlaps between these two, however, consideration of smart materials in this way is beneficial since, as discussed above, the view of the subject is colored by the point of view of the discussion.Smart materials include such a wide range of materials and possibilities it is worthwhile viewing the subject from a number of angles. The following is not an exhaustive list of smart materials, but serves as examples of the more common smart materials. Man y of the materials in Table 1 can be described as â€Å"responsive† rather than truly smart, ie, these materials can form one part of a smart system, either the sensor or ctuator, but require another responsive material for the actuator or sensor, respectively, to make up a complete smart system.Only a few materials, eg, the photochromic sunglasses mentioned in the section classification schemes, are both sensor and actuator. Even materials that can be used as an actuator and sensor often cannot be engineered to perform both functions effectively at the same time. Thus, most smart materials are used in combinations to form smart systems. An example of a possible system is an antivibration device that uses a piezoelectric sensor to detect the vibration and a magnetorheological fluid as the damper.The reterence section includes a number ot Internet web sites tor turtner practical information and as examples of the use and current availability of some smart materials. A number o f these references are to commercial web sites as useful sites regarding the application and maturity of some of the technologies, but this in no way is an implied endorsement of the particular companies. 4. Piezoelectric and Related Phenomena Piezoelectric materials are materials that exhibit a linear relationship between electric and mechanical variables.The electric polarization is proportional to the mechanical stress. Piezoelectric materials are â€Å"two-way'; (a) they convert mechanical stress into an electric field (Fig. la), and this effect is employed in piezoelectric sensors; (b) application of an electric field produces a mechanical 4 stress (Fig. 1b, c), and this behavior is utilized in actuator and power generator- harvesting devices. Only materials with an electrically poled, anisotropic crystal stucture can form piezoelectrics; ‘e, there must be an intrinsic electric field maintained in a particular direction throughout the material.Thus the material must be p yroelectric. A feature of a pyroelectric material is the disappearance of this pontaneous electric field above the Curie point temperature. Piezoelectric devices are formed by raising the material above the Curie point temperature and then cooling in the presence of a strong electric field. The common term for this action is to say that the material is â€Å"poled† in the presence of the electric field. This results in partial or complete alignment of the spontaneous electric field within the material. A related material property is the ferroelectric effect.All ferroelectric materials are necessarily both pyroelectric and piezoelectric. The ferroelectric effect is the electric olarization brought about by the complete or partial realignment of the spontaneous polarization resulting in a static electric field at the surfaces of the materials. (But note, a net field is not normally detected because the surface charge is rapidly neutralized by ambient charged particles. ) There are two principal types of materials that can function as piezoelectrics: the ceramics and polymers. 1 .Ceramics: The most widely used materials are the piezoceramics based on the lead zirconate titanate (PZT) formations, mixed sodium and potassium niobates, lithium niobate, and quartz. The advantages of these piezoceramics are that they have a high piezoelectric activity and they can be fabricated in many different shapes. 2. Polymers: Poly(vinylidene fluoride), PVDF, is the most widely used polymer piezoelectric material. It has the advantages over ceramic devices of flexibility, formability and can be simply cut to shape. Polymer piezoelectric materials have lower authority (force and displacement) than ceramic devices.The PVDF structure is a good example of the spontaneous electric field seen in these types of material (Fig. A limitation of piezoelectric materials is that they exhibit small dimensional changes but with high applied force). Composite structures consisting of a le ngth of piezoelectric bonded to a nonpiezoelectric substrate can be used to convert the lateral change in dimension of the piezoelectric to a bending force. In this way, larger actuation strokes can be achieved. Piezoelectric materials are used in many different types of sensing and actuating devices and also for power harvesting.Examples include Sensors: vibration, sound, accelerometers, pressure, ultrasonics, strain, power generation. Actuators: print heads, vibration suppression, speakers and buzzers, spark generators, ultrasonic ransducers, micropositioning and translation. Electrical components: filters and resonators. 5 5. Shape Memory Alloys and Polymers Metal shape memory alloys (SMAs) exhibit the properties of pseudo-elasticity and the shape memory effect. These alloys undergo thermomechanical changes passing from a martensitic phase at low temperature to an austenitic phase at higher temperature (Fig. a). 5. 1 . Shape Memory Effect. In the martensite phase, the alloy is so fter and easily manipulated through large strains with a little change in stress, ie, it can be easily deformed. As the temperature of the alloy is increased above the critical transformation) temperature, it changes into the austentic phase. In the austentic phase, the alloy regains its high strength and high modulus and also reverts back to its original shape. Thus a SMA can be formed into shape above the transformation temperature, cooled below the transformation temperature, and formed into different shape.On heating, the SMA will revert to the shape that it was formed into above the transformation temperature (Fig. 3b). 5. 2. Pseudo-Elasticity. This occurs when the alloy is completely composed of austenite (‘e, the temperature is above the transformation temperature). If the temperature is kept constant and the material is loaded, then at some point there will be a transformation to the martensite phase simply due to loading. The load is absorbed by deformation of the sof ter martensite phase, but upon unloading the martensite starts to transform back into austenite and the materials springs back into its original shape (Fig. c). Shape memory alloys (SMAs) can be divided into three functional groups: one-way SMAs, two-way SMAs, and magnetically controlled SMAs. The magnetically controlled SMAS show great potential as actuator materials for smart tructures because they could provide rapid strokes with large amplitudes under precise control. The most extensively used conventional shape memory alloys are the nickel-titanium, copper-zinc-aluminium, and copper- aluminium-nickel alloys. Due to their low cost, iron-based shape memory alloys are becoming more popular in smart structure applications.Iron-manganese- silicon steels alloyed with chromium, nickel, and cobalt, and iron-manganese- silicon steels alloyed with nitrogen all fit into this category. As previously mentioned, the nickel-titanium alloys have been the most widely used shape memory alloys. T his family of nickel-titanium alloys is known as Nitinol (Nickel Titanium Naval Ordnance Laboratory in honor of the place where this material behavior was first observed). Nitinol can be used in robotics actuators and micromanipulators that simulate human muscle motion.The ability of Nitinol to exert a smooth, controlled force when activated is an advantage of this material family. SMAS have been used for military, medical, safety, and robotics applications. Specific usages include hydraulic lines, medical tweezers, anchors for attaching tendons to bones, eyeglass frames, control of hot house windows, underwire brassieres, and ntiscalding valves used in water taps, and shower heads. 5. 3. Shape Memory Polymers. Shape memory polymers (SMP) are polymers (polyurethane based thermoplastics) that can be heated (above the glass transition temperature), deformed, and cooled to retain the deformed 6 shape.Upon heating above the transition temperature, the material softens and returns to the shape that it had prior to deformation. Advantages of SMPs over metallic SMAS include light weight, high recoverable strains (up to 400%), injection moulding (to form complex shapes), low cost and SMPs have shape recovery temperatures selectable between A30 and 708C. The SMAs, however, have superior force characteristics and can operate at higher temperatures. 6. Electrostrictive Materials Electrostrictive materials are materials that exhibit a quadratic relationship between mechanical stress and an applied electric polarization (Fig. ). Electrostriction can occur in any material. Whenever an electric field is applied, the induced charges in the material attract each other resulting in a compressive force. This attraction is independent of the sign of the electric field. The strain in the material lies along the axis of the induced polarization, which is preferably the direction of the applied lectric field. Electrostriction is a small effect and, in contrast to piezoelectric mater ials, electrostrictive materials show a large effect near the Curie temperature, especially for ferroelectric substances, such as members of the perovskite family.Typical electrostrictive materials include such compounds as lead manganese niobate:lead titanate (PMN:PT) and lead lanthanium zirconate titanate (PLZT). Electrostriction is used in actuators for accurate and fine positioning. Electrostrictive translators are less stable than piezoelectric devices with greater sensitivity to temperature. The one advantage they offer is lower hysteresis than piezoelectric materials at temperatures typically >1 7. Magnetostrictive Materials The same type of material response as that seen in electrostrictive materials discussed above can be observed when the stimulus is a magnetic field.Shape changes are the largest in ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic solids. The repositioning of domain walls that occur when these solids are placed in magnetic field leads to hysteresis between magnetization an d an applied magnetic field. All of these effects disappear when the ferromagnetic material is heated above its Curie temperature. Ferrimagnetic materials have macroscopic properties similar to ferromagnetics; however, their microscopic properties are different. The magnetic dipoles of a ferromagnetic solid are aligned parallel to each other; whereas in a ferrimagnetic the alignment can be either parallel or in other directions.Materials that have shown a response to a magnetic stimuli are primarily inorganic: alloys of iron, nickel, and cobalt doped with rare earths. TERFENOLD, an alloy of terbium, dysprosium, and iron, TbxDy1 †¦xFey with x between 0. 27 and 0. 30 and y between 1. 90 and 1. 95, is the most effective magnetostrictive material and has been escribed as the â€Å"200 lb† gorilla of magnetostrictive materials. The name TERFENOL is an acronym for two of the elements present in the alloy and NOL refers to the Naval Ordinance Laboratory where this type 7 of mat erial behavior was developed.Magnetostriction occurs at its fullest potential in crystalline materials. Cost still appears to be one of the hindrances to magnetostrictive materials becoming commercially important. Piezoelectric materials are generally more compact and require less energy to operate than magnetostrictive materials. Magnetostrictive materials (‘e, TERFENOL-D) are useful where high force, igh power, and a long stroke are required or where the high drive voltages typical of the piezoelectric materials cannot be tolerated. 8.Electro- and Magnetorheological Materials Electrorheological and magnetorheological materials are fluids that exhibit a dramatic change in viscosity with an applied electric or magnetic field. The fluid can change from a thick oily consistency to virtually a solid substance within a millisecond. There are a wide assortment of electrorheological and magnetorheological fluids, which are usually a uniform dispersion or suspension of particles with in a fluid. A typical example of an electrorheological fluid is a mixture of cornstarch in a silicone oil. The mechanism of how electrorheological fluids work is simple.When there is no electric field the particles in the fluid are distributed randomly and are free to move in the fluid. In an applied electric field the particles orient themselves in ?ber-like structures (fibrils) that are much harder to move and impede the flow of the fluid, dramatically increasing the viscosity of the fluid-particle mixture (Fig. 5). Typical magnetorheological fluids consist of tiny iron particles uspended in oil and have a similar behavior to the electrorheological fluids except initiated by the application of a magnetic field. 8. 1 . Electrorheological Materials.Electrorheological fluids are nonNewtonian fluids, ‘e, the relationship between shear stress and strain rate is nonlinear. The changes in viscous properties of electrorheological fluids are only obtained at relatively high electric fields, in the order of 1 kV/mm. The practical applications of electrorheological fluids center around their abilities to transfer shear stresses and of acting as a variable damping material in an electric field. They have been demonstrated in shock absorbers, brake systems, clutches, vibration damping, control valves, and actuators.An illustrative application of electrorheological fluids is their use as a smart space material. In this application, a single-link flexible-beam was constructed in a sandwich confguration with ER fluids distributed along its length. When the beam is to be rapidly moved back and forth, the ER fluid is not energized, providing flexibility during the transient response period of the maneuver (for speed). At the end point of the maneuver the beam is made rigid (for stability). . 2. Magnetorheological Materials.Magnetorheological fluids are the magnetic equivalent of electrorheological fluids. An advantage over the ER fluids is that high voltages are not req uired to actuate the MR fluids. These fluids are under development for use in shock absorbers, vibration damping, exercise equipment and surface polishing of machine parts. 8 9. Photoresponsive and Sensitive Materials There are several different types of material families that exhibit different types of light transmission-absorption or other responses to a stimulus.These include lectrochromism (a change in color as a function of an electrical field); thermochromism (color change with heat); photochromic materials (reversible lightsensitive materials); photographic materials (irreversible light-sensitive materials); photostrictive materials (shape changes due to light usually caused by changes in electronic structure); fluorescence (emission of light (photons) at a different wavelength to the incident light).An interesting material with both electro- and thermochromism behavior, V02, was evaluated for a smart window application. Materials are being developed to exhibit both photochro mic and photographic ehaviors and one such system is based on a substituted indolinospirobenzopyrene embedded in a polystyrene matrix. This system acts as a photochromic system at low exposure in the ultraviolet (uv) range and at high exposure it functions as a photographic system. The image can be devisualized by heat and can be restored many times witn uv irradiation.Another interesting application is the use ot polymers that fluoresce or change color in the presence of particular metal ions. This is being tested as a corrosion sensor with optical fibers coated with an appropriate polymer r with the polymer incorporated in a composite structure. The system is optically excited and the presence of light at the fluorescence wavelength indicates metal ions (and thus corrosion). Thermochromic materials find use in security devices and in thermal mapping applications.All semiconductor materials exhibit an electrical response to incident light due to the electron absorption of photons, of sufficient energy, and promotion of the electrons to the conduction band (change in resistance) and across doping gradients, as in diodes (generation of current and voltage) in solar cells. Of particular interest in this rea is the development of non-silicon systems, which may results in cheap, flexible, robust, and easy to transport and deploy solar energy collectors. 0. Chemical and Biochemically Sensitive Materials The most widely known classes of chemically sensitive materials are the pHsensitive materials that include the acids, bases, and indicators. The most interesting of these for smart applications are the indicators. These materials change colors as a function of pH and are usually totally reversible. Indicators have also been used in the development of novel chemical indicating systems.Devices based on the ermeability of organic vapors through polymeric films or porous polymeric plugs, and subsequent reaction with an indicator, are used for monitoring the condition of time and/or temperature sensitive items, eg, pharmaceutics, foods and other perishables. The system is activated by crushing the vial releasing the volatile component, which then slowly permeates through the film reacting with the indicator to give a visible color change. This change is 9 dependent on both time and temperature.Other examples of pH-sensitive materials include the smart hydrogels and smart polymers (see below in EAPs). There is increasing interest in the detection of other chemicals, particularly in the detection of chemical warfare agents, environmentally noxious chemicals, and the control and monitoring of (engine) emissions. Semiconductor film sensors based on metal oxides (eg, Sn02, ZnO, Ti02, W03) are used to measure the concentration of toxic and flammable gases.These devices operate at several hundreds of degrees and a chemical reaction between the gas and the metal oxide changes the electrical conductivity of the oxide. The conductivity is a function of the t emperature and gas concentration. Higher temperature devices (to $10008C) have been demonstrated using Sic and SrTi03 systems. At low temperatures, the gases interact with the metal oxide by a chemisorption mechanism. The chemically adsorbed particles receive a partial charge and the opposite charge is made available to the oxide as a tree electron to increase its conductivity.Metal oxide sensors (MOS) are finding applications in the automotive industry monitoring the composition of exhaust gases. Many actions in organic systems are governed by highly selective reactions that are in effect molecular recognition mechanisms. The molecules responsible for these rocesses are highly selective in the molecules that they bind to (‘e, recognize) and can be used in engineered devices as sensors. An example of this is coating piezoelectric material with a selective material and then detecting the increase in mass of the coating as the target molecule binds to the coating.Being organic i n nature means that a wide range of ways to modify these molecules are available, eg, light stimulated regions that change their fluorescence frequency in the presence of the target molecule. Conducting polymers can also be tailored to respond (by a change in resistance) to ifferent chemicals. In this case, the response is rather broad (ie, not very selective), however, systems have been developed with a number of polymers treated to react to different types of chemicals to obtain â€Å"fingerprints† that are specific to particular chemicals.These systems generally have a limited lifetime and increasing the life and stability of the conducting polymers is the main challenge facing their acceptance as sensors. A novel proposal for chemical detection is the use of molecularly imprinted plastics (MIPs). In this case, target molecules are imbedded in a (porous) plastic matrix that is pplied to some sensing-transducer device. The target molecule is then dissolved away leaving a ph ysical imprint in the plastic matrix.On exposure to the molecule in a gas or liquid the physical imprints left in the plastic are selective for the target molecule and collect it, altering the properties (eg, mass) of the plastic. 1 1 . Electroactive Polymers (Actuators) An electroactive polymer (EAP) is a polymer that exhibits a response to an applied electrical stimulation and often also develops an electrical response to a mechanical stimulation. Some of these materials have been touched on in previous sections.

The Death Of An Animal Farm By George Orwell - 1734 Words

A. Old Major was a well respected animal on the farm who had a vision for the animals of a better life. He envisioned the rebellion the animals would later attempt to follow and motivated the animals to want change. Now, comrades, what is the nature of this life of ours? Let us face it: our lives are miserable, laborious, and short. We are born, we are given just so much food as will keep the breath in our bodies, and those of us who are capable of it are forced to work to the last atom of our strength; and the very instant that our usefulness has come to an end we are slaughtered with hideous cruelty. No animal in England knows the meaning of happiness or leisure after he is a year old. No animal in England is free. The life of an animal†¦show more content†¦Old Major like Karl Marx was wise and respected and is considered the father of Animalism as Marx and Lenin are considered the fathers of communism. Neither Animalism or Marxism was carried out in the way it was origina lly meant and transformed into something different than it was originally intended. B. Napoleon rose up to power and ruled just as Joseph Stalin did. â€Å" The Soviet Union was founded in 1922, with Lenin as its first leader. During these years, Stalin had continued to move up the party ladder, and in 1922 he became secretary general of the Central Committee of the Communist Party, a role that enabled him to appoint his allies to government jobs and grow a base of political support† (History.com). Similar to Stalin, Napoleon followed in the suit of Old Major and ruled as a dictator. Napoleon also reigned over Animal farm using terror such as Stalin did, for example if either had enemies they would find a way to get rid of them.†Stalin ruled by terror and with a totalitarian grip in order to eliminate anyone who might oppose him. He expanded the powers of the secret police, encouraged citizens to spy on one another and had millions of people killed or sent to the Gulag system of forced labor camps† (History.com). An example of this can be seen in Animal Farm when Napoleon uses the dogs as his form of secret police to get rid of Snowball who opposed his ideas and contradicted him. â€Å"ButShow MoreRelatedAnimal Farm By George Orwell944 Words   |  4 Pageslegs(Orwell 132). He carried a whip in his trotter(Orwell 133). In the novel Animal Farm by George Orwell, animals have the ability to talk and form their own ethos, Animalism. Animal Farm is an intriguing allegory by George Orwell, who is also the author of 1984, includes many enjoyable elements. More knowledge of the author, his use of allegorical elements, themes, symbols, and the significance in the real world, allows the reader to get more out of this glance into the future. George OrwellRead MoreAnimal Farm, By George Orwell1545 Words   |  7 Pagesallow because an this elite institution of people often use this gear to dominate and oppress society. In George Orwell’s story, Animal Farm, Orwell demonstrates that education is a powerful weapon and is a device that can be used to at least one’s benefit. Living in a world where strength is a straightforward to benefit, the pigs quick use education to govern the relaxation of the animals on the farm to serve themselves worked to their advantage. This story in shows the underlying message that   firstRead MoreAnalysis Of George Orwell s The Animal Of Power 1129 Words   |  5 Pagesand dominance. George Orwell conveys his interpretation of greed by utilizing the aim and the purpose of a fable. A fable teaches a moral lesson to the world and usually uses characters that speak and behave like humans. Early in George Orwell’s novella, an example of greed is provided when the pigs stea l the apples and milk for themselves under the false simulation of it being for the merit of the farm â€Å"to preserve our [pigs] health† (Orwell 52). Squealer decieted the farm animals through the useRead MoreEducation In Animal Farm, By George Orwell1537 Words   |  7 Pagesallow because an this elite institution of people often use this gear to dominate and oppress society. In George Orwell’s story, Animal Farm, Orwell demonstrates that education is a powerful weapon and is a device that can be used to at least one’s benefit. Living in a world where strength is a straightforward to benefit, the pigs quick use education to govern the relaxation of the animals on the farm to serve themselves worked to their advantage. This story in shows the underlying message that   firstRead MoreWhat Is The Importance Of Ignorance In Animal Farm1558 Words   |  7 Pagesallow because of this elite institution of people often use this gear to dominate and oppress society . In George Orwell’s story, Animal Farm, Orwell demonstrates that education is a powerful weapon and is a device that can be used to at least one’s benefit. Living in a world where strength is a straightforward benefit, the pigs quick use education to govern the relaxation of the animals on the farm to serve themselves worked to their advantage. This story in shows the underlying message that   first,Read MoreTotalitarianism in Orwells Mind Essay1053 Words   |  5 Pagesauthor George Orwell hates in government. 1984, a book written by Orwell, depicts a society called Oceania, in which unwary citizens are obedient to the Party, a totalitarian regime. Totalitarianism is defined as a political system in which a centralized government does not tolerate any form of political dissent and seeks to control many, if not all, aspects of public and private life. Another one of George Orwell’s books, Animal Farm, is an allegory about the Soviet Union, and in it farm a nimalsRead More Biography George Orwell Essay1135 Words   |  5 Pagesopinions like George Orwell. Orwell got to express his opinions in his writings. He wrote about the sociopolitical conditions of his time. For a man whose career started as a dishwasher, he came a long way to be known as the great author he is known as today. In this paper George Orwells early life, his variety of jobs before becoming a writer, his many successes and failures and some of his best known novels and critiques of them, and his sad death will all be discussed. George Orwell was born inRead MoreSymbolism and Allegory in Animal Farm1657 Words   |  7 PagesSymbolism and allegory in three aspects of Animal Farm : Old major, The Windmill and The Seven Commandments George Orwell uses symbols throughout the novel Animal Farm to show how the upper class groups use manipulation to their advantage. Animal Farm in simple terms is the allegory of a revolution gone sour. Animalism, Communism, and Fascism are all the symbols which are used by the pigs as a means of satisfying their greed and lust for power. As Lord Acton wrote: Power tends to corrupt; absoluteRead MoreThe Literary Impact Of George Orwell . George Orwell, Born1375 Words   |  6 Pages The Literary Impact of George Orwell George Orwell, born as Eric Arthur Blair, was a British journalist and author. His works were compelling, especially, when it comes to his strong political beliefs. He is considered one of the most widely admired English-language essayists of the twentieth century. As Elkins points out, he is best known for the two novels that were written toward the end of his life: the anti-utopian political allegory Animal Farm and the dystopian novel Nineteen Eighty-FourRead MoreAnimal Farm By George Orwell1538 Words   |  7 PagesMecca Animal Farm The Russian Revolution in 1917 shows how a desperate society can be turned into a military superpower filled with terror and chaos. George Orwell uses his book, Animal Farm, to parallel this period of time in history. This book is an allegory of fascism and communism and the negative outcomes. The animals begin with great unity, working toward a common goal. The government then becomes corrupted by the temptations of power. George Orwell uses the characters in Animal Farm to show